Month: June 2021

The Robot Definition & Karel Čapek’s R.U.R.

Nowadays, the term robot has come to mean a few different things, whether that’s Terminator, a Roomba, or the industrial robots used on manufacturing assembly lines.

Robot means, according to Merriam Webster, “a machine that resembles a living creature in being capable of moving independently and performing complex actions.” Or, on a rudimentary level, “a device that automatically performs complicated, often repetitive tasks.”

But, to really get to the source of the robot definition, we have to take a trip back to 1920, Czechoslovakia.

(Spoiler warning for R.U.R.)

Robot Precursors

Automatons and mechanical human facsimiles have been a part of literature for thousands of years. In Homer’s Iliad, Hephaestus is described as having two golden handmaidens who possessed “intelligence in their hearts.” The handmaidens’ purpose was to hold up Hephaestus’ old, frail body, and not much else.

And we’ve seen a slew of automatons in literature since the classic Greek days. Frank L. Baum’s Tin Man might even be considered an automaton!

But in 1920, the Czech playwright Karel Čapek published his seminal work, R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots) and effectively solidified the word ‘robot’ into the human lexicon.

R.U.R. In a Nutshell

The premise of Čapek’s play revolves around the idea of a disposable workforce. The main, human characters, work in a factory that produces lifelike robots that are used for all kinds of tasks. Much like our 21st century use of robots—for industry. But, as the play continues, the robots overthrow humanity and essentially become human, capable of thoughts and feelings.

Broken down so simply, R.U.R. reads like the science fiction version of Marx’s Communist Manifesto, with the robots standing in as the proletariat workforce. But, that’s a topic for another time.

Robot Definition as Laid Out by Čapek

The term originated from the Old Slavonic word rabota, meaning “servitude of forced labor,” and in Czech is roboti.

While robot has come to mean a whole slew of things in the modern English language, it’s still rooted in the old Slavonic roots: servitude. Many of our modern robots—the Roomba, for example—don’t have the semi-sentience of Čapek’s robots.

Despite the depictions in the performances of R.U.R.—which show the robots as coated in metal armor with stiff, calculated movements—there are various places in the play where they are said to be near-human, the products of advanced biotechnology.

In the first act, the factory’s general manager, Domain, describes it as the place “where people are made.” And later, one of the characters is revealed to be a robot with much surprise because she was indistinguishable from her human counterparts.

Čapek’s robots are much more advanced than vacuum-bots; in the age of science fiction, we might better describe them as androids. But, the playwright did far more than introduce a popular term into our language, he also pioneered the modern idea of acquired humanity.

rur 1939 production poster
Poster for a production of R.U.R. in 1939
Photo from Wikipedia

Years Ahead of His Time

So Čapek gives us the robot definition, but he also presents the notion that artificially-created humanoids might have feelings and the potential for human thought processes. By the end of the play, the robots have taken over the world, but are unable to reproduce or construct new robots.

The big reveal occurs when the robot based off of the human character Helena, and another robot named Primus, come to the conclusion that they “belong to one another,” having somehow discovered emotions and fallen in love. Earlier in the act, the robot Radius explains that the robots have attained humanity, or an accurate imitation of humanity, because they “have read books. We have studied science and the arts. The Robots have achieved human culture.”

As intriguing and advanced as this might have been in 1920, the notion that biologically or mechanically engineered entities can become capable of emotion and human thought is a reality in the modern age.

Great strides in computing have led to deep-learning artificial intelligences that cannot only create their own problem-solving algorithms, but can learn to mimic human emotion.

Mark Riedl, a professor from Georgia Tech with a specialization in AI systems, has been gradually teaching AI common sense and ethics using stories. Much like R.U.R., Reidl is utilizing culture instead of code to teach AI.  

Reidl says “When we talk about teaching robots ethics, we’re really asking how we help robots avoid conflict with society and culture at large…. The more an AI system or a robot can understand the values of the people that it’s interacting with, the less conflict there’ll be [and] the more understanding and useful it’ll be to humans.”

And yet, teaching AI and robots via culture poses the question: “Who’s to say that the wealth of sci-fi media that portrays AI as evil won’t bring about our downfall?”

It happens in R.U.R., the culture of “slaughter and domination” precipitates the robots to destroy mankind. Will the human obsession with robot overlords condition our technology to become just that?

Final Thoughts on Karel Čapek’s R.U.R.

We have Čapek to thank for the proliferation of the term ‘robot’, but more importantly, he raised questions about the ethics of robots, androids, and AI.

As we move forward in our pursuit of science, it’s critical that we take a moment to consider the morality of our experiments. That’s why science fiction is such a powerful tool.

R.U.R., Blade Runner, Terminator, etc. show us scenarios of what might happen in the future if we’re not careful today.

Even though the robot definition is steeped in the mindset of servitude, we should strive to create an environment of collaboration, not isolation. Putting the debate over born-humanity and acquired humanity aside, we can make conscious decisions to change the mindset around AI to one of respect and partnership. Who knows, your Roomba might remember the time you kicked it and is harboring a deep resentment, biding it’s time to strike.

The History, and Future, of Animal Testing in Space

The pages of space travel history are filled with records of countless animals and insects who were sent into space.

Perhaps the most famous was Laika, the cosmonaut dog sent into orbit on Sputnik 2 in 1957. She became the first animal to ever enter space, and her journey sparked a flurry of other tests that eventually led to the first human space trip in 1961.

But, why do scientists send animals into space, anyways? And what do recent medical discoveries like intestinal liquid ventilation mean for the future of space travel?

Why Perform Animal Testing in Space?

Animal testing has polarized the science community. On one side, the human safety activists argue that animal testing helps protect us from harmful side effects of pharmaceuticals, cleaning supplies, and pretty much every other product under the sun.

On the other side of the spectrum, the animal rights activists argue that there are other ways to safely perform tests that doesn’t cost lab animals their lives.

There are valid points on both sides of the argument, but sending animals to space has sort of become the posterchild for both animal testing and abolishing animal testing.

So why do we send dogs, chimps, and spiders to space to begin with?

In the early days of the space race, scientists were uncertain about the conditions in space. There were a lot of unanswered questions:

  • Could humans survive the g-force of entry and reentry?
  • Would the human body withstand the stress of a prolonged space trip?
  • How would the body readjust to Earth’s gravity?

Bioastronautics specialists figured that the road to these answers was simply to send various creatures into orbit and observe the results. Unfortunately, almost all animals sent into space died from the stress. But their sacrifice led to the first human spacewalk, the first feet on the moon, and the development of the ISS.  

What Kind of Creatures Got Tickets to Space?

While Laika was the first dog in space, she was followed by:

Felicette the first cat in space
Félicette, the French alley cat turned space traveler
Photo from thenewstack.io

While no adult birds were brought to space, the American flight Discovery STS-29 took 32 chicken embryos into space.

Once scientists had a substantial amount of data about the effects of space on the body, they became interested in unborn creatures.

In addition to the countless live animals sent into orbit, scientists have sent quail and frog eggs into space, as well as the seeds for potatoes, cottonseed, and rapeseed.

But new studies have shown that certain animals have the capacity to breathe with much lower levels of oxygen than previously observed, which is obviously a plus when it comes to space travel.

Discovery of Intestine Breathing in Pigs and Rodents

A new study published in the medical journal Med presents the findings of how oxygenated liquid given to the intestines supported two mammals in respiratory failure.

Both pigs and mice were able to survive environments with critically-low oxygen levels because of oxygen tubes inserted through their rectums to reach the intestines.

Kind of absurd, right?

Well, scientists have known about non-lung respiratory functions for a while. Sea cucumbers and some freshwater catfish, for example, use their intestines to process oxygen. But until now, no mammals have been known to possess such abilities.

What does intestinal breathing in these mammals mean for humans? And what does it mean for the future of animal testing in space?

Medical Benefits of Non-Lung Breathing

The researchers who found the intestinal breathing capabilities of pigs, rats, and mice stated that the discovery might be used in the future to help human patients in respiratory failure.

75% of mice that were given the intestinal liquid ventilation system survived for almost an hour in oxygen-deficient environments, and in non-lethal oxygen-deficient environments, mice with the intestinal liquid ventilation were more active than mice without.

It’s still unclear whether or not humans have the same intestinal breathing abilities, but Takanori Takebe, head researcher of the project, said that “The level of arterial oxygenation provided by our ventilation system, if scaled for human application, is likely sufficient to treat patients with severe respiratory failure, potentially providing life-saving oxygenation.”

In the current medical climate, such a device might remedy the lack of ventilators for COVID-19 patients.

Thinking Outside the Box

As science fiction enthusiasts, we like to take real-world discoveries and bend them a little. In this case, the finding of intestinal breathing sparks questions about a functional use for it in the vacuum of space (or at least, in a space station).

Picture this: you’re on a spaceship in deep space, life support systems are failing and your friend is badly wounded. Oxygen is a precious commodity and you’re already running low. You have to keep your friend alive until backup arrives.

The intestinal liquid ventilation system can support your friend’s respiratory function while not consuming valuable oxygen gas. You’re able to keep him stable until rescue arrives.

While not the most realistic scenario, it’s perfectly feasible that in the future, intestinal liquid ventilation will be used to life-saving effect, not just on Earth, but in space too.

And who knows, maybe pigs and mice will be sent into orbit to test the ILV system before it’s approved for human use. While many of the animals sent to space lost their lives, their sacrifice made modern space exploration possible, and will continue to advance our trek beyond Earth.

Read More Neat Science Articles from Signals From The Edge

Mind Over Matter: How Robbie Reyes Conquers Science

Superhero literature, be it blockbuster films or comic books, is inexplicably tied with science. Many of the greatest superheroes—and supervillains—were created using science, like Captain America or the Incredible Hulk. And some use their big brains and expansive wealth to wield science like a weapon.

But, there’s a special segment of superhero lore that revolves around anything but the scientific. In these annals of comic book history, there lives heroes and villains that operate outside the realm of science.

Mutants, Inhumans, gods and goddesses, monks: the list goes on.

However, one anti-hero comes to mind when we think of the supernatural. Ghost Rider.

While the 2007 and 2011 films starring Nick Cage might have turned off long-time Ghost Rider fans, newer iterations of the flaming-head hell-raiser have brought new life to the character.

Robbie Reyes’ Ghost Rider prominently appears in season 4 of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the All-New Ghost Rider comic book series released in 2014. (Spoiler warning for both).

Two Origin Stories for Robbie Reyes

As with any book (in this case, comic book) to film adaption, there’s bound to be some inconsistencies. When it comes to Robbie Reyes, the differences are both minute, and…well, not.

Reyes’ origin story as it’s told in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and as it’s told in All-New Ghost Rider are fairly similar. Reyes takes out his 1969 Dodge Charger RT for a ride, is gunned down either a rogue militant group or a gang, and ends up dying.

However, the distinct point of deviation is where the Ghost Rider comes from.

In AoS, the previous Ghost Rider, Johnny Blaze, shows up and imparts the spirit of the Ghost Rider into Reyes.

But in All-New Ghost Rider, the demented spirit of Reyes’ serial killer uncle, Eli Morrow, possesses Robbie, giving him Ghost Rider-like abilities.

The story lines diverge a bit from that point, but a common theme remains: mind over matter, spirit over science.

How Robbie Reyes Beats Science

While there are some differences between the Robbie Reyes Ghost Rider characters we’ve discussed, there’s one thing that ties the stories together: the battle against science.

It might seem like a trivial aspect of the story, because Reyes’ real battle is fought against his own rage and that of the spirit processing him. But let me digress.

One of the prominent themes of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is the power of science. The majority of the problems Coulson and his team face up to season 4 are solved by Fitz and Simmons, their head scientists.

And it’s a great theme that sends a positive message to all real-life scientists. It says “your education and skills are your superpowers.”

But, when Robbie Reyes shows up, he continually challenges science. Fitz and Simmons can’t grasp his abilities, even though they made it their mission to understand powered individuals (specifically the Inhumans Daisy, Lincoln, and Yo-yo).

Reyes breaks out of Fitz’s containment module, escapes from a parallel, limbo dimension, and survives numerous scenarios where he should have died. All of his screen time is spent defying science like it’s his sole mission.

Even against seemingly insurmountable foes, like Eli Morrow, with his ability to create matter, and the rogue android, Aida, Reyes finds victory. Both antagonists base their power in science—with a bit of dark magic thrown in—and Ghost Rider prevails.

All-New Ghost Rider

In the All-New Ghost Rider comics, science takes on a physical manifestation in Dr. Zabo and his Blue Krue.

Everyone Reyes faces is juiced up with a powerful steroid concoction that transforms them into either super-soldiers or monsters. But Reyes manages to conquer his foes with relative ease, once again demonstrating Ghost Rider’s power over science.

Reyes in the All-New Ghost Rider shows us that no amount of body modification or scientific tampering can match strong willpower.

Even though Reyes undergoes extreme duress—financially, emotionally, and physically—he never stops trying to control the spirit inside of him. And in the end, he learns to harness the power without giving into the spirit’s evil demands. Science just so happened to be the fire he needed to reforge his identity.

By defeating the Blue Krue and Dr. Zabo, Reyes solidifies his presence in his neighborhood as the Ghost Rider, a hero. For the people of Hillside Heights, their savior is one they never expected, and that in itself speaks volumes to Reyes’ determination for success—or his fear of failure.

What the Reyes Ghost Rider Tells Us About Reliance on Science

In today’s world, the ever-forward step of science makes it very easy to fall into the trap of reliance on technology.

Picture it:

  • Working all day on a computer
  • Driving home in your smart car
  • Managing your home with Alexa or Google Home
  • Scrolling on your phone, playing video games, or watching TV for entertainment

Perhaps that was a bit dramatic.

But the point remains that as technology continues to advance, our lives become even more intertwined with it. In many cases, that’s a good thing—better medical equipment, cleaner energy, more accessible knowledge.

Yet, if we’re totally absorbed in our technological realities, we start to lose sight of everything else around us.

Sometimes, our saving grace—our breath of fresh air—comes from embracing the unknown. Reyes didn’t completely understand Ghost Rider, but he learned to control it to his benefit. Should we be doing the same? Sometimes the answers to our questions are right under our noses, only if we took the time to look down instead of ahead.

Anyways, it’s something to think about.

In Conclusion…

The real message that Robbie Reyes sends to viewers is this: no matter what your skill, be it biology, mechanics, engineering, video games, writing—anything, really—if your mindset isn’t fully focused on success, then you won’t accomplish your goals.

Reyes shows us that when you put your mind to it, you can overcome any obstacle. And while in his case he has the help of a demonic spirit to break the rules of science, he wouldn’t have been able to save his friends if it hadn’t been for his iron-strong willpower.

No matter how accomplished we are in the sciences, without a solid moral center and unbroken spirits, we won’t achieve anything worth recording in the annals of history.  

Origins of Meteorites & Atomic Bomb Testing Sites? A Connection?

Science fiction literature is so packed full of super-sophisticated weapons and doomsday devices, it’s become the norm for our favored protagonists to make it their mission to disable them.

Most of these weapons of mass destruction are the design of hyper-advanced species or devious alien races, but many of the weapons are based off real life events. For instance, the development of the atom bomb.

But now, there might actually be a connection between the tests done during the Manhattan Project and the origins of meteorites, and possibly, the same WMDs so prevalent in science fiction.

It all started when Paul Steinhardt, one of the pioneers of quasicrystal research, found samples of quasicrystal among the debris of the Trinity bomb test site.

Quasicrystal Formations Found in A-Bomb Test Sites

Researchers have been studying the aftermath the atom bomb left on the landscape of the New Mexico test site in 1945.

The detonation of the atom bomb created extremely high temperatures and intense pressure, which fused sand and debris from the bomb tower—like copper—into a field of trinitite.

What’s trinitite, you ask?

Well, it’s a unique crystalline glass formed during nuclear events. Trinitite got its name from Trinity, the first atom bomb tested in Alamogordo, New Mexico. Trinitite comes in two different compositions based on its refraction index. Plus, trinitite comes in a few colors:

  • ‘Normal’ trinitite – usually a greenish hue, very low levels of metallic compounds
  • Red trinitite – gains its color from copper, iron and lead
  • Black trinitite – a very rare form of trinitite that contains high levels of iron

Trinitite has been a well-known substance since the 1940s, but researchers were shocked when they found samples of quasicrystals in a piece of red trinitite from New Mexico.

Red Trinitite
Photo from thebulletin.org

Breaking Down Man-made Quasicrystals and Natural Quasicrystals

So, quasicrystals. Sounds fancy, right?

Turns out, they are fairly common, but not at the bottom of a radioactive crater.

A quasicrystal refers to any crystalline structure that has a unique pattern that doesn’t repeat. In other common crystals, the atomic structure forms a lattice that repeats itself with perfect symmetry.

Quasicrystals have been sort of a physicist’s taboo since the 1980s, and were largely consider to be a joke. However, in 2011, Dr. Dan Shechtman won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of the first quasicrystal, a diffraction pattern of an aluminum and manganese alloy.

Many more manmade quasicrystals have been discovered since 2011, but the hunt still continues for more natural quasicrystals. Paul Steinhardt, a theoretical physicist at Princeton, led a team to scour a remote volcanic region in Russia in search of natural quasicrystals.

And that’s where the trinitite comes in.

In a rare piece of red trinitite from New Mexico, Steinhardt discovered a quasicrystal that was actually formed because of the Trinity test. The heat, pressure, and violent impact of falling from the sky created the unique structure.

That unique structure of quasicrystal just so happens to also be found in meteorites.

Do Quasicrystals Give Us a Hint to the Origins of Meteorites?

As a science fiction enthusiast, this is where my brain started to spitball ideas before I even did any research.

If an atomic bomb created enough heat and pressure to form quasicrystals, what else had that kind of power?

Since the A-bomb is perhaps the most powerful weapon known to humankind, was it possible there was something even more lethal out there in the wide cosmos that could have the same effect?

Maybe the planet-destroying ray of the Death Star blew chunks of Alderaan deep into space with tiny quasicrystals on the debris. Or maybe a planet’s core exploded because its residents experimented on the core.

While much remains a mystery, researchers who studied the quasicrystals of the Khatyrka meteorite found in Russia suggest that the quasicrystals were formed during a collision between two asteroids. But there’s no concrete evidence that rules out other, more fanciful, possibilities. 

Tests on trinitite allow scientists to determine the type of nuclear event that occurred and approximate a location for the origin of the glassy substance. Is it only a matter of time before similar tests can tell us where in the universe these natural quasicrystals come from? Perhaps we’ll also learn about the origins of meteorites, even if they come from deep space.

For now, let your imagination roam. And please, don’t build a doomsday ray to try to make quasicrystals.